Re-examining the Issue of Women's Decline in the Divan of Malek-o-Sho'ara Bahar

Mohammad-Taqi Bahar—known by the title *Malek-ol-Sho'ara* (King of Poets)—was born in Mashhad in 1886 and passed away in Tehran in 1951. His ancestral and personal background—distinct from claims linking his lineage to the Barmakids—comprised a mother of Georgian descent and a poet father of Kashani origin who resided in Mashhad. "From the age of fourteen, Bahar attended gatherings of freedom-seekers alongside his father... and, having developed an affinity for modern ideas, became deeply committed to the Constitutional movement and the cause of liberty. ...At the age of twenty, he joined the ranks of the Constitutionalists in Khorasan."He grew up in the religious environment of Mashhad; through the open-mindedness gained from his education and participation in diverse circles, he developed a perspective on Islam and the prevailing social conditions that was simultaneously religious and intellectual—a relatively balanced view. He studied religious subjects at a traditional *maktab* during childhood and traveled with his family to the holy shrines in Iraq; he spent most of his life wearing the *aba* and turban, attending the Majlis in this religious attire.
However, this religious background did not hinder his intellectualism. "Bahar remained committed to religious beliefs until the end of his life, yet he re-evaluated many of them—transforming from a poet of religious verse into a religious intellectual."
He was a proponent of religion, a patriot, and a modernist; he stood against the accumulated vices of the past while simultaneously battling the baseness that had infiltrated the cause of modernity. This is perhaps the most concise characterization of Bahar that can be drawn from his poetry.
According to Edward Browne, Bahar holds a highly significant place in Persian literature as one of the pioneering political poets of the post-Constitutional era.
The issue of the degradation and backwardness of Iranian women is a recurring intellectual concern in Bahar’s *Divan*. Among the three categories of women—urban, tribal, and rural—his focus is primarily directed toward the first group. An examination of his verses, biographical sources, and life reveals that he was not merely "West-struck" but drew inspiration from all three lifestyles. The social justice Bahar seeks to define is first filtered through personal preferences—sometimes patriarchal and rooted in classical Persian literature—and subsequently rests upon a highly contradictory intellectual foundation:an amalgam of modernism and a male chauvinism deeply ingrained in his own traditions and personal beliefs.Within this framework, she employed praise, reproach, encouragement of self-belief, and corrective measures that exposed shortcomings—in short, she urged women to pursue learning and shun ignorance. The issue of *hijab* and attire constitutes a pivotal theme in her thought. Her concern for the awareness of all women—whether living in traditional settings or familiar with the trappings of modernity—demonstrated the breadth of her perspective. *Hijab* and the manner of dress are not merely external factors; rather, they are simultaneously internal and multifaceted phenomena. This study was conducted using a library-based research method, drawing upon poetic verses as primary references.The research findings are grounded in the principle that, once personal preferences and variations in perspective are set aside, a balanced intellectual temperament emerges. His thought reflects a desire for both Islam and Iran, alongside a commitment to principled modernization; he opposes both the seclusion of women—and their withdrawal from social engagement—and the moral laxity and corruption that often follow such extremes. Much like his own attire—which ranges from the traditional *aba* and turban to the suit and tie—his perspective on women represents an amalgam of traditionalism and modernism. This multidimensional view regarding the "removal of the veil" addresses both the outward, regulated, and lawful presence of women in society and the lifting of the veils of ignorance, superstition, lack of self-confidence, and fragility—achieved through tools such as education, encouragement, discipline, and motivation.In Bahar’s view, a woman is defined within the traditional roles of wife, mother, and daughter; in other words, she is defined by her place at the heart of the family rather than outside it. He challenges the stagnation, superstition, ignorance, and moral decay pervading society—confronting these issues across the spectrum of women's lives, from the traditional to the modern. He champions the cause of women everywhere—whether in the border town of Quchan or Tehran’s Laleh-zar district, whether rich or poor, and whether mired in vice or embodying the sanctity of motherhood. His sharpest critiques target not merely the physical veil, but the thick shroud of ignorance that has cast its shadow over women's minds and souls; he advocates for education and enlightenment as the means to dispel this darkness.